"You will find the spirit of Caesar in this soul of a woman" - Aretmisia Gentileschi, Part 3

Artemisia Gentileschi.
Allegory of Inclination

“My illustrious lordship, i'll show you what a woman can do”
-- Artemisia Gentileschi

How did Artemisia Gentileschi become such a magnificent artist? She was born in Rome towards the end of the 16th century to the fairly successful artist Orazio Gentileschi (you might be familiar with Orazio from his painting called The Lute Player) and Prudenzia di Ottaviano Montoni.  Artemisia was the oldest of four children and was introduced to drawing and painting in her father's workshop. She proved to be a quick learner and at an early age she was recognized as having promise as an artist.

Prudenzia di Ottaviano Montoni died when Artemisia was 12 years old. Prudentia died in childbirth and Orazio was left to manage his family along with his work. In early 17th century Italy young girls were generally kept out of the public eye. It appears that for the most part Orazio tried to follow this norm with Artemisia, going so far as to rent an upstairs apartment to a woman named Tuzia who some historians suggest was to be sort of a chaperone for Artemisia when Orazio was away from home.

Art and artists surrounded Artemisia. Orazio was a friend of Caravaggio, a controversial and influential Italian artist. Caravaggio's technique, known as tenebrism, relied on using deep shadow to enhance the light areas of the paintings. Artemisia was a follower of Caravaggio and his influence can be seen in her work. Her earliest work, Suzanna and the Elders, produced when she was about 17 years old. For years was attributed to her father, but when the signature on the back of the painting was compared to Artemisia's writings it was confirmed as her work. There is some evidence from this same period that even though Artemisia was to stay confined to the family living quarters she was working in her fathers studio, going so far as to provide instruction to his apprentices if he happened to be out of the studio.

At 18 Artemisia entered an extremely difficult time in her life. A family acquaintance and fellow artist, Agostino Tassi attacked and raped Artemisia. Orazio brought the suit because at this time a woman couldn’t bring rape charges. The trial was appalling and resulted in a slap on the wrist for Agostino. You can read more in the supplemental post "Slut Shaming in17th Century Italy".

Following the trial Artemisia married the artist Pierantonio Stiattesi and the newlyweds moved to Florence. Little is known of Pierantonio's work. He and Artemisia had a daughter named Prudentia. The marriage lasted only a few years. The couple had financial problems, Pierantonio was a philanderer and was extremely jealous of Artemisia. He finally walked out on her and Prudentia in 1622.

Artemisia joined Florence’s Accademia dell’Arte del Disegno in 1616  -- the first woman to do so. As a member of the Accademia, she was able to purchase paints and other art materials without the permission of her husband or father. This freedom proved to be instrumental when she and Pierantonio separated. She refined and developed her style and became known not only for her technical proficiency, but more importantly, the originality in the way she portrayed her subjects.

It is said that she was known for developing the rich yellow/gold color that is used in many of her paintings. It was known in the artist community as "Artemisia Yellow". The banner color for this blog is in honor of Artemisia.

About 1630 Artemisia moved to Naples. A few years later she went to London, where she worked alongside her father for King Charles I where they collaborated on the ceiling paintings of the Great Hall in the Queen’s House in Greenwich. She stayed on in London for at several more years until she finally settled in Naples.

Little is known of the later years of Artemisia's life. She is know to have painted several versions of the story of David and Bathsheba, but few other records of this part of her life survive. The rape trial, her unconventional life as a female painter, and her numerous paintings of powerful women struggling against male dominance did not endear her to the male aristocracy and her reputation suffered after her death. It was the early 20th century before art historians began to re-evaluate her work and contribution to the art world.

Artemisia is the definitive Bad Ass. Tough, intimidating and uncompromising.

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O'Neill, Mary. Artemisia’s Moment. Smithsonian Magazine, May 2002

Rockefeller, Hall W. Biography of Artemisia Gentileschi. The Thought Co., December 02, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/artemisia-gentileschi-art-biography-4571308

 Artemisia Gentileschi.The Art History Archive.

Slut Shaming in 17th Century Italy - Artemisia Gentileschi, Part 2

In the 21st century we have come to accept that slut shaming can be a part of cases of sexual assault. However, for an amature historian like myself it is extremely hard to read a 17th century trial transcript and learn first hand that humiliating rape victims was not just happening, but that is was apparently an accepted practice.

Orazio Gentileschi recognized the promise in his daughters work so he arranged for her to have lessons from a family friend and artist, Agostino Tassi. Agostino was known from his skill with tromploi and his use of perspective.

Lessons progressed for a few months and during that time Agostino became more and more familiar with Artemisia. In today's terms he was grooming her.

In the spring of 1611 Agostino took advantage of Orazio being away from home. He convinced the upstairs neighbor Tuzia to let him into the Gentileschi family quarters where he attacked and raped Artemisia. Some writers have suggested that he took a friend - Cosimo Quorli - to hold Artemisia down, although from what I could tell Artemisia does not bring this up during the trial.

Artemisia struggled against Agostino, continuing to protest loudly after the rape was over, even attacking Agostino with a knife. Agostino said he would marry Artemisia, and she acquiesced. Artemisia's own words from the trail describe what happen next, “I felt calmer, and with this promise he induced me later on to yield lovingly, many times, to his desires, since many times he has also reconfirmed this promise to me.”

Time passed, and no wedding. Nearly a year later Orazio pressed charges.

Orazio brought the suit because at this time a woman couldn’t bring rape charges. It was considered a crime of property damage; Artemisia had lost “bartering value.”

Bartering value. Let that sink in for a minute.

Artemisia was further victimized by the courts. She underwent a pelvic examination in front of the court. Later, during questioning, thumbscrews were placed on her fingers and tightened to see if she would change her story under torture. Historians refer to this as Agostino Tassi's trial, but let's be clear: Artemisia and her father were the ones on trial. Artemisia was slut shamed by the court. She was blamed for the rape, Agostino's lawyers introduce "witnesses" who said she wrote erotic letters to other men, that she slept with at least five different men, and that she had committed incest with her father.

Still, Artemisia did not waiver. She was adamant in her story, that Agostino had attacked her, then later promised to marry her. She. Was. Adamant.

Half way through the trial Artemisia learned that Agostino had been married. Neither Artemisia or  Orazio had any idea that Agostino had been married.

Agostino was despicable at best. During the trial it came out that he had been charged with sexual molestation of both young girls and boys before coming to Rome. When he agreed to teach Artemisia he was under investigation for raping his late wife's 14-year-old sister. He had been married, but when his wife left him she was stalked and murdered. The crime remains unsolved but several accounts suggest that Agostino was in some way responsible.

After a grueling 7 months the trail ended. The court transcript still exists, but unfortunately several pages from the verdict section are missing. We know that Agostino was convicted, as he was held in prison for eight months after the trial. Additional documents from the period imply that he was banished from working in Rome. Agostino was released from prison and pardoned and continued working in Rome.

One writer suggested that Pope Innocent admired Agostino's work and was instrumental in his pardon. It was through this association that Agostino enjoyed a long  career in Rome.

Artemisia's hands healed. She left Rome and moved to Florence. Her art survives to this day.

Orazio also sought work outside Rome. He successfully worked for European nobility for the rest of his life. His art survives to this day.

Who was Agostino Tassi again? Anybody? Oh yeah, the rapist. That's his claim to fame.



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Bissell, R. Ward Artemisia Gentileschi and the Authority of Art: Critical Reading and Catalogue Raisonné. https://books.google.com/

Cascone, Sarah. "A New Book Uses 400-Year-Old Court Transcripts to Recreate Baroque Painter Artemisia Gentileschi’s Rape Trial". Art World. April 3, 2018 https://news.artnet.com/art-world/a-new-novel-artemisia-gentileschi-1255694

Cohen, Elizabeth S. "The Trails of Artemisia Gentileschi: Rape as History". The Sixteenth Century Journal, Vol. 31, No. 1, Special Edition: Gender in Early Modern Europe (Spring, 2000), pp. 47-75 (29 pages)

Marks, Tracy. Artemisia: The Rape and the Trial. http://www.webwinds.com/artemisia/trial.htm

National Gallery of Art. Orazio Gentileschi. https://www.nga.gov/collection/artist-info.1332.html

O'Neill, Mary. Artemisia’s Moment. Smithsonian Magazine, May 2002

Painter of Heroines

Artemisia Gentileschi. Judith Slaying Holofernes

Last summer when I began writing about Women Artists I knew this day would come. The day I would have to write about Artemisia Gentileschi. Artemisia as a subject is terrifying - mostly because I admire her and feel small in comparison to the task of sharing her story. Many authors have written about her, so, what could I add to that story?

With your indulgence I hope to explain over the next few blog posts why I'm certain that Artemisia Gentileschi is the quintessential Bad-Ass.

It would be very easy to start with "Artemisia Gentileschi was born in Rome on July 8, 1593". But, instead, let's start with the paintings - specifically the subjects of the paintings. Later, when I share more about her life and art, the particular way she tells the stories of the subjects will begin to make sense.

No Renaissance artist portrayed women in the same way Artemisia Gentileschi did. Artemisia made the women in her paintings whole, passionate, vibrant, and powerful. In Judith Slaying Holofernes* Artemisia portrays the women as the heroes of the moment. Rather than painting Judith as a courageous beauty she is portrayed in the act of beheading Holofernes. Judith's maid assists by holding the struggling man down while she labors with the sword against his throat. Blood dramatically sprays across the maids arm, but neither women flinch. They are terrible and beautiful carrying out their mission.

Artemisia painted this subject several times and from different points of view. One version captures the moments immediately after the beheading as Judith and her maid collect Holofernes head in a basket. They pause, looking up from their grisly task as though they have been startled. Another version shows Judith and the Maidservant immediately after their work is done, peering back over their shoulders as though they are checking to see if they are being followed. In this painting we see Judith, triumphant, sword resting on her shoulder. Her face calm and resolute. Almost as an afterthought the head of Holofernes rests in the maids basket.

Artemisia Gentileschi, Suzanna and the Elders

In Artemisia's Suzanna and the Elders Suzanna is not some flirtatious girl who coyly ignores the attention from the old men, as in Massys piece (below). No, Artemisia painted Suzanna twisting away from the two lecherous old men watching her, horrified at being spied on.

Jan Massys, Suzanne and the Elders

Artemisia paints these women as heroines. Women that are morally strong, brave and courageous. Women who are protagonists. Just like Artemisia.


*As the ancient story relates, Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar sent his general Holofernes to besiege the Jewish city of Bethulia. Judith, described as a beautiful young widow, resolves to save her people by slaying Holofernes herself. After reciting a long prayer to God, she dons her finest clothes in order to seduce him. After Holofernes has drank enough wine to become intoxicated, Judith decapitates him with his own sword, winning a decisive victory for the Israelites. (Angelica Frey, ARTSY, April 04, 2019)

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Selected Sources

The Art Story: Artemisia Gentileschi Artworks. https://www.theartstory.org/artist/gentileschi-artemisia/artworks/
Frey, Angelica. How Judith Beheading Holofernes Became Art History’s Favorite Icon of Female Rage. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-judith-beheading-holofernes-art-historys-favorite-icon-female-rage
Vickery, Amanda. Bring female artists out of storage. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/may/16/bring-women-artists-out-of-storage

A Feast for the Eyes

They say that we eat with our eyes first. I think Clara Peeters must have known that. While Fede Galizia ( the amazing Italian artist that I wrote about a few weeks ago) blazed a trail for still life painters Clara Peeters refined the genre and set the Dutch art scene on fire with her work. Her realistic paintings are lush and inspiring - that is the reason I choose her work as the background for this blog.

Still Life with Flowers and a Golden Cup, Clara Peeters

There are few facts available about Clara's private life. Most scholars believe she was born around 1585, give or take 5 years. There are baptism and marriage records from Antwerp for a Clara Peeters, however the name Clara was fairly common and Peeters was extremely common, so we can't be sure this is Clara Peeters the Artist. Her brush work suggests that she was trained in Antwerp and one of her later works bears the stamp of the Antwerp guild, so certainly she lived there for a time.

It is apparent that Clara was intrigued by reflective surfaces. Most every painting is a beautiful balance between shadow and light that is punctuated with reflections. We see a loaf of bread reflected on a silver plate, red wine reflected through a clear goblet, onto a silver tray below. And most interestingly the tiny self portraits - painted as reflections on gold or silver vessels.

Detail, Still Life with Flowers and a Golden Cup, Clara Peeters

Clara popularized "banquet" (or breakfast) still lifes. These were lavish displays of fruits, cheeses, meats, metal and ceramic dishes, tableware,  and flowers. As a woman artist in the early 17th century Clara would not have had access to nude models, so she painted what was everyday and familiar to her. We can learn as much about the diet of a Netherlandish family from her paintings as we can about making beautiful art. With her brush she celebrates an abundance of fish, fowl and bakery items in vivid, mouth-watering detail.

Vanitas Portrait of a Woman, Clara Peeters

Another interesting reflection appears in a "vanitas" painting that Clara produced in 1610. Vanitas is a specific type of still-life that emerged in the 17th century in the Netherlands. The carefully composed objects were meant to remind the viewer of the transience of life. These symbols often contrasted life and death, wealth and poverty, health and illness, etc. Clara's painting, Vanitas Portrait of a Woman, is a remarkable example of a vanitas work. In it we see a young woman (maybe a self-portrait), seemingly in the prime of life. But she looks sad and maybe a little bored with the riches spilled across the table before her. Clara uses flowers in the background to symbolize life, but if you notice there is one flower drooping and wilting, reminding us that life is short and death near. A small-ish bubble floating near the center of the painting. The bubble was a fairly common symbol used in vanitas painting, on par with candles, an hourglass or flowers. The bubble is used to symbolize the fragility of life.

Unlike other artists of the time, there are no records that Clara had any noble or wealthy patrons. However, she must have been successful. At least two of her paintings appear on the inventories of the Spanish King as early as 1627. It appears that Clara ceased painting around 1621. Some speculate that she married, and subsequently stopped painting, or that she may have passed away around this time.

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Selected Sources

Decoteau, Pamela Hibbs. Clara Peeters 1594-ca. 1640 : and the Development of Still-life Painting in Northern Europe
Vaninskaya, Anna. Fantasies of Time and Death. Palgrave Macmillan, London

A Wife, a Mistress. and a Queen Walk into a Château...

This is a story of three women and a castel. More specifically, a château. A beautiful château that sits astride the Cher river in the Loire Valley near the small village of Chenonceau.

The first structures that stood on the property were a mill house and a small medieval castle from the 11th century. In 1513, Thomas Bohier, chamberlain of the king of France, determined to acquire the property, raze the existing buildings, and in their place create a Renaissance château.

Yule decoration at Château de Chenonceau 

Here is when we get introduced to the first woman in the château's history - Katherine Briçonnet. Katherine was Thomas's wife, and as it turns out, the designer of the château. Thomas was called away to war, so Thomas had to spend time away from the property;  Katherine assumed control of the project.

One of Katherines most significant contributions to Château de Chenonceau was the building of a staircase which proceeds straight upwards. Most staircases of this time were spiral or curved and apparently Katherine was looking to create something more practical.

 Sadly, Thomas and Katherine didn't get to spend much time enjoying the château. Both had passed away by 1526 and their son Thomas inherited the château. King Francois I became the owner of the château when Thomas had to give it away because of his debts.

Château de Chenonceau in Winter

On the death of King Francois I, his son and heir, Henry II became the owner. Henry decided to give the castle as a gift  to his mistress, the noblewoman Diane de Poitiers. Diane was delighted with the château and decided to add to it.

Diane contributed what is foundation for most iconic part of the château --  the magnificent arched bridge across the river. She also had the formal garden added to the property. Diane's time at the Château de Chenonceau came to an end with the death of Henry. Henry II’s widow Catherine de Medici, the Queen of France, had taken a fancy to Château de Chenonceau and wanted it for herself. Catherine knew that Diane was the owner, but was able to 'encourage' an exchange of castles. Catherine de Medici took Château de Chenonceau, while Chaumont Castle was given to Diane de Poitiers.

Château de Chenonceau, Bâtiment-des-Dômes

Château de Chenonceau quickly became Catherines favorite residence. She also added to the château, by constructing the two-story gallery known as the Bâtiment-des-Dômes over the arched bridge Diane had built. Catherine used the château to entertain members of European royal families and representatives of the aristocracy.

In 1560, Château de Chenonceau became the site for the wedding of Catherine's son Francis II and Mary Queen of Scots. Later that same year, when Francis was proclaimed King, the first fireworks in France were witnessed at the castle, during the celebration.

Still Life Pioneer

A still life (also known by its French title, nature morte) painting is a piece that features an arrangement of inanimate objects as its subject. Usually, these items are set on a table and often include organic objects like fruit and flowers and household items like glassware and textiles.

Fed Galizia, Still Life of Cherries in a Bowl

"The term “still life” is derived from the Dutch word stilleven, which gained prominence during the 16th century. While it was during this time that the still life gained recognition as a genre, its roots date back to ancient times." (Kelly Richman-Abdou writing for My Modern Met).

Hummm...from this definition we might conclude that the Dutch invented the genre of still life paintings. And, in fact, many art history books would support that theory. However, by the very narrow definition above, we see that some Egyptian tomb paintings and Greek and Roman mosaics could be classified as still life art.

Paolo Morigia, Fede Galizia

So, still life paintings have been around for a while, but what and who caused the shift from background and ornamentation to being the focus of the painting. I believe the major shift came about in the late 16th century. It was during this time that the objects in still life paintings took center stage, and not a merely supporting role. And, while significant still life paintings come out of the low countries, it is, in fact a 16th century Italian artist that paved the way.

Fede Galizia was born in Milan most likely sometime before 1578 to the miniaturist, Nunzio Galizia. Fede learned to paint from him and by the age of 12 she was gaining significant reputation as an artist. One of Fede's earliest patrons was Jesuit scholar and historian Paolo Morigia. In a collection of short biographies published in 1595 he wrote that Fede showed signs of "becoming a truly noble painter." She painted multiple portraits of Paolo and he declared her paintings "of such excellence, and such a good likeness, that one could not desire anything more."

The images in Fede's portraits are realistic and detailed - just look at the jewelry and the fabric in Judith with the Head of Holofernes. Her portraits show a trend towards naturalism away from the humanism of earlier centuries. Her subjects seem very real, and their stories are told with each brush stroke.

Judith with the Head of Holofernes, Fede Galizia

As important as her portraits were, Fede's still life works were groundbreaking. Her cherries (above) look ripe and juicy. Her peaches were velvety, her flowers featured petals that appeared soft. She kept the backgrounds fairly indiscriminate, so as to focus the viewer on the subject. The fruits and flowers in these still lifes are tactile, swelling with flavor and fragrance.

Not much is known of Fede's personal life. She moved between Italy, Greece, and Spain always looking for sources of inspiration. Fede never married and it is said that she died during the plague that hit Milan in 1630.

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Select Sources

Galer, Sophia Smith. Ten female artists you should know about.

Labedzki, Annette.  Fede Galizia - An Italian Renaissance Artist of Still Life, Portraiture and Miniature Merit

Librizzi, Jane. Now They Tell Us: Fede Galizia's Delicious Still Life

Calligraphy, Embroidery and ....Spying!?!?

I have to admit that this weeks artist intrigues me for a lot of reasons. Most of our subjects have been Italian with some Germans and French thrown in for seasoning. Also, our artists from earlier blogs tended to be illuminators, with more recent subjects being portrait artists. And, almost to a person, they have all earned their keep from their art. We will diverge from those patterns this week with Esther Inglis Kello.

Ester Inglis, Unknown

Ester was born in England in 1571 to French Huguenot parents. She was the daughter of Nicholas Langlois and his wife, Marie Presot, who migrated to London in about 1569 and to Scotland by 1574. Marie taught Ester calligraphy as a young child.  In about 1596 Ester married Scotsman Bartholomew Kello, a minister and sometimes clerk for Queen Elizabeth. Bartholomew was apparently well educated and would write Latin verses that praised his wife.

Artwork

Ester was a highly skilled calligrapher, some writers have described it as extra-ordinary. She mastered the usual styles of the time along with most of the ornamental styles, including lettera mancina (mirror writing), lettere piacevolle (with curling terminals to ascenders and descenders), lettre pattee with triangular serifs, the trembling line known as lettera rognosa, and lettera tagliata where each line is broken horizontally to give a continuous white line through the letters.

        

Margaret Macaulay writes the following regarding Esters work: "(she) could work to the minutest scale, fitting eight lines into a vertical measurement of only 18mm, and averaging 23 words to a four-inch line. Metal pens were at an experimental stage, so that goose pens, with crow quills for finer work, were mainly used. The description of Esther as ‘Mistresse of the Golden Pen’ is complimentary only. Gold pens were awarded as prizes for major writing competitions."

Esters skill didn't end with the written word. She illuminated the pages, sometimes adding tiny self-portraits. She also embroidered the covers for her books. The books were small -- ranging from about 5.5 inches X 6.5 inches to the smallest at 1.25 x 1.75 inches. She was prolific - there are currently 50 of her books surviving.

Career

There are few records of Ester receiving any payment for these works. What is apparent is that they were used as gifts to curry favor with the Court. It also appears that, from time to time they were created and presented with the hope of receiving a payment. Many of her little books are dedicated to members of the Protestant circles in England and Europe, including Elizabeth I; James VI and I; Prince Henry; Prince Charles; Lucy Harington, Countess of Bedford; Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury; Sir Anthony Bacon; Prince Maurice of Nassau; Catherine de Parthenay, Duchess of Rohan; and Catherine de Bourbon, sister of Henri IV. It must have been difficult for Ester to spend that much time and effort on a book then turn it over with no assurance of receiving any compensation.

Ester also used her calligraphic skills to assist her husband in his position as Clerk of Passports. She made copies of documents and wrote foreign correspondence. This is where it gets interesting. Some of her small books appear to have supported his involvement with the secret negotiations for the succession of James VI to the English throne.  Some scholars of the era go so far as to suggest that Bartholomew used these little gift books as pretext to travel abroad as a spy.

Hummm...exquisite calligrapher, amazing miniaturist, incredible embroiderist, and political reformer...pretty badass, I think!

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Selected Sources

Campbell, Julie D. and Anne R. Larsen, Editors. Early Modern Women and Transnational Communities of Letters
Carney, Jo Eldridge. Renaissance and Reformation, 1500-1620: A Biographical DictionaryMacaulay, Margaret. Mistresse of the Golden Pen.  http://textualities.net/margaret-macaulay/mistresse-of-the-golden-pen