Badass Artist....and Business Woman

Diana Mantuana, better known as Diana Scultori, was an engraver and print maker from Mantua, Italy. In fact, Diana is one of the earliest known female engravers. She came from a family of engravers. Her father, Giovanni Battista Ghisi, was a painter, sculptor and engraver. Her brother Adamo Scultori was also an engraver and painter.

With so many of these artists I find my self needing to be educated on the medium in which they practiced. I learned about enameling when I was studying Suzanne de Court. Now, I've found that I need an education on engraving. In the 16th century engraving was done by first etching the design onto copper plates. Then the artist used a burin, or graver, to cut thin furrows in the plates surface. The burin was a prism shaped bar of hardened steel with a sharp point and wooden handle. This was pushed across the surface of the plate away from the artist, the palm was used to push the burin and it was guided by the thumb and forefinger. When the image was complete ink would be applied to the surface of the plate, and the excess wiped away, leaving ink in the furrows. The plate was then pressed onto paper.

Historians can't quite agree on when Diana was born; some say as early as 1532 and as late as 1547. What is known is that she met the architect, Francesco da Volterra (also known as Francesco Capriani) in 1565 when he moved to Mantua. The pair married soon thereafter and traveled to Rome by 1575.

In that same year Diana applied for and received the Papal Privilege to make and market her own work. It was rare for a woman to receive a Papal Privilege; it meant that Diana could establish a name for her household, and to sign her work. The privilege gave Diana a way to protect her engravings from being copied and then sold “by others of either sex, but most especially book dealers, sculptors, engravers and printers”. If her work was published without her consent a heavy fine was levied against the offender. One third of the fine would go to the Pope, one third to Diana, and the final third to the judge who issued the decision. This would naturally encourage a judgment in favor of the artist. In addition to such a fine, the punishment also included immediate excommunication from the Catholic Church.

Having the Papal Privilege was a good indication of Diana's business acumen. It's clear to me that Diana learned not just her craft from her father, but also how to run a business. She learned from Giovanni that courting patrons was critical to the success of the family business. She used that knowledge when she and Francesco moved to Rome. Diana's artwork promoted her husband as an architect. Diana also retained ownership of her plates which allow her to reprint and have an ongoing source for income. As the years passed the couple became successful. The husband-and-wife artists were admitted to the Congregazione dei Virtuosi del Pantheon - the Pontifical Academy of Fine Arts and Letters. To mark the occasion a pair of medallions were created bearing the likenesses of Diana and Francesco.


Diana made the acquaintance of Giorgio Vasari when she was about 19 years old and he recorded the following in his journal:

"All in all, from what I saw last time I was in Mantua to this year, 1566, when I returned, the city is so much more ornamented and more beautiful that, if I had not seen it, I would not have believed it. What is more, the number of artisans has multiplied and keeps on multiplying. Inasmuch as this, to Giovanni Battista Mantovano (engraver of prints and excellent sculptor, whose story I related in the Lives of Giulio Romano and Marcantonio Bolognese) there were born two sons who engrave copper plates divinely, and what is more marvelous, a daughter named Diana also engraves so well that it is a wonderful thing: and when I saw her, a very well-bred and charming young lady, and her works, which are most beautiful, I was stunned."

One of the most striking characteristics in Diana's work is the attention to fine detail. Unlike oil painting, or even drawing, the engraver has to rely on a series of fine lines to create features and shadows. There would be no relying on different tones and values to create the work, only fine lines. Another interesting aspect to her work is the use of nudes or partially draped figures. At a time when women were generally not allowed to work with male models, seeing these figures in Diana's engravings is quite intriguing. On further study it is reveled that Diana would base her work on that of other artists.

Diana's contributions to the art showed what printmaking could become. She used her skill to make headway into the world of book publishing and thus established herself a a woman of letters. In a time when some considered engraving simply copy work, Diana was able to help elevate engraving to an art form.



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Selected Sources

Lincoln, Evelyn (1 January 1997). "Making a Good Impression: Diana Mantuana's Printmaking Career". Renaissance Quarterly.
Letwin, Hilary "Old in Substance and New in Manner": The Scultori and Ghisi Engraving Enterprise in Sixteenth-Century Mantua and Beyond.
History of Science: Engraving. (October 2019) https://www.hsm.ox.ac.uk/engraving
Steve Bartrick Antique Prints and Maps.(October 2019) https://www.antiqueprints.com/Info/engraving.php
RISD Museum. Diana Mantuana, Renaissance engraver. (October 2019) https://risdmuseum.org/manual/292_diana_mantuana_renaissance_engraver

Museum:Remix. Diana Scultori. https://museumremix.wordpress.com/2015/07/22/diana-scultori-gallery-2-rome-and-the-papal-privilege/ (October 2019) 

But Wait...There's More!!

Seems that I have more to say about Sofonisba Angussiola. I mean, she lived to the ripe old age of 92...girl did a lot of living!

Self Portrait, Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba fun fact #1: She painted at least 12 self portraits. She was among the first artists to paint themselves as an artist. Her first self portrait was painted when she was about 18 years old, the last at around age 75.

Sofonisba fun fact #2:  Fabrizio de Moncada was Sofonisba's first husband who she married at the age of 39 in 1571. A short 8 years later Fabrizio died. She left Spain and set sail for Italy. It was on that ship that she met and fell in love with the ship's captain, Orazio Lomellino. She and Orazio were married in 1580, against the wishes of her family.

Bernardino Campi Painting
Sofonisba Anguissola, Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba fun fact # 3: One of her more interesting self portraits was Bernardino Campi Painting Sofonisba Anguissola. In this painting we see Sofonisba's teacher, Campi, painting a portrait of her. Some art historians suggest that Sofonisba painted this to mock her teacher and to prove that she was the better artist. I somehow doubt that since no contemporary evidence exists that supports this view.

Sofonisba Anguissola,
Sir Anthony Van Dyck

Sofonisba fun fact #4: We've already learned that Sofonisba was a mentor to other women artists of the day. But late in life she met a young Flemish painter Sir Anthony Van Dyck. She advised Van Dyck on technique and in return he painted her portrait.

Asdrubale Being Bitten by a Crab,
Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba fun fact #5: It has been said that when Michelangelo saw a sketch by Sofonisba of a smiling girl he challenged her to depict the more difficult subject of a boy crying. Sofonisba was up to the challenge and produced Asdrubale Being Bitten by a Crab. A friend of Michelangelo's later sent the sketch to Cosimo de Medici, duke of Florence, from where it was widely copied and circulated.

An Illustrious Woman

Picking up where we left off last week with the Anguissola sisters we come to the training of the girls. Sofonisba and Elena were sent to learn painting from Bernardino Campi around 1546. Elena was the second daughter and very close in age to Sofonisba. It appears that the two children were sent to live at the Campi residence and were treated like guests. As well born girls, it would have been inappropriate to have them working in the artists workshop along with male apprentices. When Campi moved to another city Sofonisba became a student of Gatti (around 1550). Scholars seem to disagree on Elena's studies at that point, however, most agree that by 1551 Elena had entered convent of San Vincenzo in Mantua as a Dominican nun, taking the name of Sister Minerva (not to be confused with her little sister Minerva).

Sofonisba became teacher to her younger sisters, Lucia, Minerva, Europa, and Anna Maria. Of these Lucia showed the most promise. According to seventeenth-century biographer Filippo Baldinucci, Lucia had the potential to "become a better artist than even Sofonisba" had she not died so young. All of the sisters continued to paint throughout their lives, but Sofonisba was definitely the most successful.

By 1554 Sofonisba traveled to Rome and it is there that she came into her own. She continued to work on her art and by 1556 she had made the acquaintance of Michelangelo (yes, that Michelangelo). The nature of their relationship is not clear; some Some scholars have suggested that she may have studied with Michelangelo for a time. Two surviving letters from Sofonisba's father Amilcare to Michelangelo demonstrate the relationship with the great artist as well as Amilcare's concern for his daughters career. In May of 1557 Amilicare sent the following message to Michelangelo,

“honourable and thoughtful affection that you have shown to Sofonisba, my daughter, to whom you introduced to practice the most honourable art of painting.”

Elisabeth of Valois, Sofonisba Anguissola

Amilcare wrote again in 1558 thanking Michelangelo again for his praise of Sofonisba's paintings. This letter also underscores the friendship between Michelangelo and Amilcare.
Michelangelo's apparent fondness for the family seems to have helped Sofonisba's career.  Contemporary accounts show that Sofonisba's drawings were circulated among the artistic community and at least one drawing was sent to Duke Cosimo I.

Certainly the renown that Sofonisba gained in Italy helped to secure her position as lady-in-waiting at the Spanish court. In 1559 Sofonisba traveled to Madrid where she took up residency as court painter and painting tutor to Elisabeth of Valois, Phillip II's queen. Sofonisba spent several years at the Spanish court and was held in high regard. There she produced several official portraits of the members of the Royal Family and other members of the court.

These portraits were more difficult than her earlier somewhat playful paintings of her family members. An official portrait had to be precise and detailed. Sofonisba would have had to spend hours painting the fine lace collars, and intricate fabrics all while perfecting the face of the sitter.

 Don Carlos, son of Philip II of Spain, Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba spent about 10 years at the Spanish court. Elisabeth of Valois died in 1568. Some scholars say that Sofonisba was very sad at her passing and asked King Phillip if she could be released from service. Phillp was apparently fond of Sofonisba and wanted to make sure her future was secure so he arranged a marriage (and paid her dowry) with Sicilian, Fabrizio de Moncada. Along with the dowry a royal pension was settled on Sofonisba.

Sofonisba continued to paint and teach the rest of her life. She acted as patroness to several female artists of the day that we will learn more about in the coming weeks:  Lavinia Fontana, Barbara Longhi, Fede Galizia and Artemisia Gentileschi.

After Fabrizio's death, Sofonisba fell in love with a sea captain and merchant, Orazio Lomellino. Orazio was fairly wealthy by all accounts. Along with Sofonisba's income from painting and teaching, her royal pension, and Orazio's business interests they were able to live quite comfortably. The two were married until Sofonisba passed from this world at the age of about 92. Their love is memorialized by Orazio in the following....

To Sofonisba, my wife, who is recorded among the illustrious women of the world, outstanding in portraying the images of man. Orazio Lomellino, in sorrow for the loss of his great love, in 1632, dedicated this little tribute to such a great woman.

— Orazio Lomellino, Inscription on Sofonisba's tomb

Sofonisba lived life on her terms. Certainly she was a trailblazer for women artists. She is the first woman to make a life long career as a financially successful working artist, teacher, and inspiration to other artists.

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Chin, Lily, "SOFONISBA ANGUISSOLA AND HER EARLY TEACHERS" (2018). CUNY Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/hc_sas_etds/276

Kilroy-Ewbank, Dr. Lauren. Smart History: Sofonisba Anguissola. https://smarthistory.org/sofonisba-anguissola/ (Last visited: October 2019)

Perlingieri, I. (1988). Sofonisba Anguissola's Early Sketches. Woman's Art Journal, 9(2), 10-14. doi:10.2307/1358314

A Bad-Ass Dad and His Bad-Ass Daughters

The training of young artists during the middle ages and renaissance intrigues me. The first organized craft guilds came into being in the 12th century in Western Europe and the master/apprentice system shortly followed. An apprentice was a person that was bound by legal agreement to work for a master craftsman for a specific amount of time in return for instruction in a trade, art or business. Apprentices were treated as part of the master's family; masters were obligated to provide room and board for the apprentice.

I've not yet discovered a record of girls being apprenticed to a master painter during this period. Perhaps this is because girls were expected to keep a home, and have children when they reached adult hood. Also, apprentices shared common living quarters, so it would have been considered inappropriate to have boys and girls sharing sleeping arrangements. There is also the consideration of having a male master overseeing a young girl and the potential for unsuitable behavior.

In the last half of the 16th century things begin to change. Apprenticeships were codified and placed into statue in England in 1563. The Statute of Artificers defined how many apprentices a master could have, how long the apprenticeship would last and how disputes between master and apprentice would be settled. Records of the time suggest that girls might be eligible for apprenticeships in some trades such as buttonmakers, lacemakers, and tailors.

Sofonisba Anguissola, The Chess Game

Sixteenth century accounts reveal that  young girls pursuing painting would sometimes have teachers outside the convent or home. Often the teacher would come to the girls home to train her; occasionally the girl might visit the artists workshop.

Fortunately for  the Anguissola girls, their dad saw the value in providing a well rounded education that included training in fine art. Legend has it that Amilcare Anguissola, a nobleman from Cremona,  asked each of his six daughters what they wanted to study. Five of the six said painting and one choosing writing. Sofonisba and Lucia were the most well known of the sister artists. There was also one boy, Asdrubale, who's sole claim to fame seems to be that he was Sofinisba's brother.

Self Portrait, Lucia Anguissola

When Sofonisba was about 14 years old Amilcare arranged for her to study with  Bernardino Campi a highly respected portrait painter from Cremona. When Campi moved to another city she studied with Bernardino Gatti. It is important to note that secondary writers refer to Sofonisba as apprenticing to these two artists, but I've not yet discovered any contemporary source material that confirms she was in an apprenticeship relationship with either artist.

There is still so much to tell about this family. In a first time ever event for Bad-Ass Women Artist Blog the story of  the Anguissola girls is...

TO BE CONTINUED!


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Life in Elizabethan England: Apprentices. http://elizabethan.org/compendium/80.html (Last visited: October 2019)
Cartwright, Mark. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Medieval Guilds. https://www.ancient.eu/Medieval_Guilds/ (Last visited: October 2019)
Statute of Artificers, 1563. http://www.ditext.com/morris/1563.html (Last visited: October 2019)

Evans, Richard. Technical Education Matters: Short History of Apprenticeships.  http://technicaleducationmatters.org/2011/01/06/short-history-of-apprenticeships/ (Last visited: October 2019)

The Lux Life

Limoge. That would just oooooooozes luxury. Artisans in the French city of Limoge have been producing enamel pieces for hundreds of years. From the 12th century until the late 14th century the area was particularly know for producing religious items such as reliquaries. The work fell out of popularity for a while but in the late 15th century, with the advent of the French Renaissance, there was a resurgence in the popularity. The types of items being produced had shifted to beautiful plates, plaques and ewers. These pieces would be decorated with narrative scenes and elaborate borders.

Lehman Ewer, Suzanne de Court

Before we go much further it would probably be appropriate to discuss what enameling is. At the most basic, enameling is glass fused to metal at high heat. "Vitreous enamels are finely ground glass, like fine sand (or even more finely pulverized and mixed with an oil or adhesive). They may be opaque or transparent; their colors come from the use of various oxides. Enamels are similar to ceramic glazes, except that, whereas glazes are in a raw state when applied to ceramics and go through chemical changes in the firing process that smelt them into glass, enamels have already been smelted. The firing process simply melts them and fuses them to the metal." Pat Musick, The Enameling Process.

Those responsible for producing enameled items seem to be part artist, part chemist and part engineer. It is important to understand that these artists had to be trained in painting and metalsmithing. The de Court family were masters at the enameling process, and none better than
Suzanne de Court.

Annunciation Plaque, Suzanne de Court

Little is known of the life of the personnel life of Suzanne de Court. Some historians say that she was the daughter of Jean de Court, a well known enameller of Renaissance France. Others say she was Jean's sister. Still others suggest that she actually married into the de Court family. We may never know.

What is known is that Suzanne lived and worked in Limoge, France and it appears that she was the first woman to become known for her enameling ability. In a time when few artists signed their work we know that Suzanne regularly added either her initials, or full name to her finished pieces. Maybe Suzanne wanted to make sure the world knew that she was a woman and that she was the artist. Or, she may have signed them because she was the owner of the workshop that produced the items.

The workshops that produced enamel work were usually family owned. Guilds were also powerful in France during this time so, it stands to reason that Suzanne would have been a guild member, and may have been a master in the guild house.


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Selected Sources
d’Amecourt, Isabelle. What I’ve learned: Isabelle d’Amécourt on European Sculpture and Works of Art. https://www.christies.com/features/What-Ive-learned-Isabelle-dAmecourt-8912-1.aspx

Crichton-Miller, Emma. Collectors remain enamoured with Limoges enamels. https://www.apollo-magazine.com/collectors-remain-enamoured-with-limoges-enamels/

Drayman-Weisser, Terry. The Early Painted Enamels of Limoges in the Walters Art Museum: Historical Context and Observations on Past Treatments https://cool.conservation-us.org/jaic/articles/jaic42-02-007_2.html

Mistress of a Guild - What?!?!?!

In western Europe artists were often part of the guild structure. The Guild of St. Luke was one of the more successful, having guild houses in many western European cities. The Guild of St. Luke was especially strong in the Netherlands. First mentioned in city records in the late 14th century, the guild in Antwerp may have been the guilds founding city. Bruges, Haarlem, and other norther European cites had active Guilds of St Luke as well. It is interesting to note that the guild system was not particularly strong in Italy. The artistic community in Italy seems to have moved from a simple master/apprentice arrangement to an academy system.

Portrait of a Young Lady, oil on panel

The Guild of St. Luke had very strict guidelines for moving through the guild from apprentice to master. An apprentice (and their family) would agree to undergo training that would last from four to six years. During that time the apprentice would learn all the skills necessary to be a successful artist, not just painting. They would study the preparation of pigments, stretching canvas, preparing the canvas for painting, etc. Eventually they would be allowed to work on one of the masters paintings, perhaps filling in a landscape, or working on a supporting character. After a period of time the apprentice would be given the opportunity to create a masterpiece. If successful they would be allowed to become a journeyman in the guild; if not they had to wait 58 weeks before they could try again. Journeymen could work for any master in the guild and this period usually lasted a year or two. During this time they would refine their skill, and might even begin signing some of their work. Finally the journeyman would make some sort of payment to the guild and would be recognized as a free Master, able to sell their own paintings and take on their own students.

In the Netherlands and northern France women experienced a bit more freedom than in other parts of Europe and we find many in an artistic trade. By the late 15th century as many as 25% of the members of the Guild of Saint Luke in Bruges were women. Several successful artists come from this time and area, the first of which was Caterina van Hemessen.

Caterina van Hemessen (1528 - 1567)  was born in Antwerp. She was a daughter of a well-known Mannerist painter, Jan Sanders van Hemessen. She learned to paint from her father and was known to have collaborated with him. Queen Mary of Hungary, Regent of the Low Countries, was her main patron and supporter.

Self Portrait, oil on panel, 12.6 in. x 9.84 in.

Caterina was regarded as a successful painter in her time. She was a portraitist; painting with oil on panel, most of her works were fairly small. Her subjects were wealthy patrons, usually painted against a plain dark background.

It is not clear when Caterina became a Master in the Guild of St. Luke. What is known is that she was the first woman to achieve that status and that she took at least three students.

Another first for Caterina was her most well known painting, Self Portrait. Many scholars believe that this is the first self-portrait of an artist, of either gender, depicted seated at an easel. This painting shows Caterina sitting at an easel, painting. It looks as though the viewer has entered the room just in time to see Caterina make that first stroke. Mahl stick in place, palette and brushes at the ready, we feel as though we've interrupted her. But, she's not upset, just patiently waiting our next question.
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Selected Sources

Bois, Danuta, Distinguished Women of Past and Present; Caterina van Hemessen. http://www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/vanhemessen-c.html

Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective

Scotterjoseph, Irene. The Athenaeum - Caterina Van Hemessen.  https://www.the-athenaeum.org/people/detail.php?ID=6188

Janson, Jonathan. Essential Vermeer 3.0 - The Guild of Saint Luke of Delft  http://www.essentialvermeer.com/saint_luke's_guild_delft.html#.XY4o60ZKiUk