A Wife, a Mistress. and a Queen Walk into a Château...

This is a story of three women and a castel. More specifically, a château. A beautiful château that sits astride the Cher river in the Loire Valley near the small village of Chenonceau.

The first structures that stood on the property were a mill house and a small medieval castle from the 11th century. In 1513, Thomas Bohier, chamberlain of the king of France, determined to acquire the property, raze the existing buildings, and in their place create a Renaissance château.

Yule decoration at Château de Chenonceau 

Here is when we get introduced to the first woman in the château's history - Katherine Briçonnet. Katherine was Thomas's wife, and as it turns out, the designer of the château. Thomas was called away to war, so Thomas had to spend time away from the property;  Katherine assumed control of the project.

One of Katherines most significant contributions to Château de Chenonceau was the building of a staircase which proceeds straight upwards. Most staircases of this time were spiral or curved and apparently Katherine was looking to create something more practical.

 Sadly, Thomas and Katherine didn't get to spend much time enjoying the château. Both had passed away by 1526 and their son Thomas inherited the château. King Francois I became the owner of the château when Thomas had to give it away because of his debts.

Château de Chenonceau in Winter

On the death of King Francois I, his son and heir, Henry II became the owner. Henry decided to give the castle as a gift  to his mistress, the noblewoman Diane de Poitiers. Diane was delighted with the château and decided to add to it.

Diane contributed what is foundation for most iconic part of the château --  the magnificent arched bridge across the river. She also had the formal garden added to the property. Diane's time at the Château de Chenonceau came to an end with the death of Henry. Henry II’s widow Catherine de Medici, the Queen of France, had taken a fancy to Château de Chenonceau and wanted it for herself. Catherine knew that Diane was the owner, but was able to 'encourage' an exchange of castles. Catherine de Medici took Château de Chenonceau, while Chaumont Castle was given to Diane de Poitiers.

Château de Chenonceau, Bâtiment-des-Dômes

Château de Chenonceau quickly became Catherines favorite residence. She also added to the château, by constructing the two-story gallery known as the Bâtiment-des-Dômes over the arched bridge Diane had built. Catherine used the château to entertain members of European royal families and representatives of the aristocracy.

In 1560, Château de Chenonceau became the site for the wedding of Catherine's son Francis II and Mary Queen of Scots. Later that same year, when Francis was proclaimed King, the first fireworks in France were witnessed at the castle, during the celebration.

Still Life Pioneer

A still life (also known by its French title, nature morte) painting is a piece that features an arrangement of inanimate objects as its subject. Usually, these items are set on a table and often include organic objects like fruit and flowers and household items like glassware and textiles.

Fed Galizia, Still Life of Cherries in a Bowl

"The term “still life” is derived from the Dutch word stilleven, which gained prominence during the 16th century. While it was during this time that the still life gained recognition as a genre, its roots date back to ancient times." (Kelly Richman-Abdou writing for My Modern Met).

Hummm...from this definition we might conclude that the Dutch invented the genre of still life paintings. And, in fact, many art history books would support that theory. However, by the very narrow definition above, we see that some Egyptian tomb paintings and Greek and Roman mosaics could be classified as still life art.

Paolo Morigia, Fede Galizia

So, still life paintings have been around for a while, but what and who caused the shift from background and ornamentation to being the focus of the painting. I believe the major shift came about in the late 16th century. It was during this time that the objects in still life paintings took center stage, and not a merely supporting role. And, while significant still life paintings come out of the low countries, it is, in fact a 16th century Italian artist that paved the way.

Fede Galizia was born in Milan most likely sometime before 1578 to the miniaturist, Nunzio Galizia. Fede learned to paint from him and by the age of 12 she was gaining significant reputation as an artist. One of Fede's earliest patrons was Jesuit scholar and historian Paolo Morigia. In a collection of short biographies published in 1595 he wrote that Fede showed signs of "becoming a truly noble painter." She painted multiple portraits of Paolo and he declared her paintings "of such excellence, and such a good likeness, that one could not desire anything more."

The images in Fede's portraits are realistic and detailed - just look at the jewelry and the fabric in Judith with the Head of Holofernes. Her portraits show a trend towards naturalism away from the humanism of earlier centuries. Her subjects seem very real, and their stories are told with each brush stroke.

Judith with the Head of Holofernes, Fede Galizia

As important as her portraits were, Fede's still life works were groundbreaking. Her cherries (above) look ripe and juicy. Her peaches were velvety, her flowers featured petals that appeared soft. She kept the backgrounds fairly indiscriminate, so as to focus the viewer on the subject. The fruits and flowers in these still lifes are tactile, swelling with flavor and fragrance.

Not much is known of Fede's personal life. She moved between Italy, Greece, and Spain always looking for sources of inspiration. Fede never married and it is said that she died during the plague that hit Milan in 1630.

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Select Sources

Galer, Sophia Smith. Ten female artists you should know about.

Labedzki, Annette.  Fede Galizia - An Italian Renaissance Artist of Still Life, Portraiture and Miniature Merit

Librizzi, Jane. Now They Tell Us: Fede Galizia's Delicious Still Life

Calligraphy, Embroidery and ....Spying!?!?

I have to admit that this weeks artist intrigues me for a lot of reasons. Most of our subjects have been Italian with some Germans and French thrown in for seasoning. Also, our artists from earlier blogs tended to be illuminators, with more recent subjects being portrait artists. And, almost to a person, they have all earned their keep from their art. We will diverge from those patterns this week with Esther Inglis Kello.

Ester Inglis, Unknown

Ester was born in England in 1571 to French Huguenot parents. She was the daughter of Nicholas Langlois and his wife, Marie Presot, who migrated to London in about 1569 and to Scotland by 1574. Marie taught Ester calligraphy as a young child.  In about 1596 Ester married Scotsman Bartholomew Kello, a minister and sometimes clerk for Queen Elizabeth. Bartholomew was apparently well educated and would write Latin verses that praised his wife.

Artwork

Ester was a highly skilled calligrapher, some writers have described it as extra-ordinary. She mastered the usual styles of the time along with most of the ornamental styles, including lettera mancina (mirror writing), lettere piacevolle (with curling terminals to ascenders and descenders), lettre pattee with triangular serifs, the trembling line known as lettera rognosa, and lettera tagliata where each line is broken horizontally to give a continuous white line through the letters.

        

Margaret Macaulay writes the following regarding Esters work: "(she) could work to the minutest scale, fitting eight lines into a vertical measurement of only 18mm, and averaging 23 words to a four-inch line. Metal pens were at an experimental stage, so that goose pens, with crow quills for finer work, were mainly used. The description of Esther as ‘Mistresse of the Golden Pen’ is complimentary only. Gold pens were awarded as prizes for major writing competitions."

Esters skill didn't end with the written word. She illuminated the pages, sometimes adding tiny self-portraits. She also embroidered the covers for her books. The books were small -- ranging from about 5.5 inches X 6.5 inches to the smallest at 1.25 x 1.75 inches. She was prolific - there are currently 50 of her books surviving.

Career

There are few records of Ester receiving any payment for these works. What is apparent is that they were used as gifts to curry favor with the Court. It also appears that, from time to time they were created and presented with the hope of receiving a payment. Many of her little books are dedicated to members of the Protestant circles in England and Europe, including Elizabeth I; James VI and I; Prince Henry; Prince Charles; Lucy Harington, Countess of Bedford; Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury; Sir Anthony Bacon; Prince Maurice of Nassau; Catherine de Parthenay, Duchess of Rohan; and Catherine de Bourbon, sister of Henri IV. It must have been difficult for Ester to spend that much time and effort on a book then turn it over with no assurance of receiving any compensation.

Ester also used her calligraphic skills to assist her husband in his position as Clerk of Passports. She made copies of documents and wrote foreign correspondence. This is where it gets interesting. Some of her small books appear to have supported his involvement with the secret negotiations for the succession of James VI to the English throne.  Some scholars of the era go so far as to suggest that Bartholomew used these little gift books as pretext to travel abroad as a spy.

Hummm...exquisite calligrapher, amazing miniaturist, incredible embroiderist, and political reformer...pretty badass, I think!

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Selected Sources

Campbell, Julie D. and Anne R. Larsen, Editors. Early Modern Women and Transnational Communities of Letters
Carney, Jo Eldridge. Renaissance and Reformation, 1500-1620: A Biographical DictionaryMacaulay, Margaret. Mistresse of the Golden Pen.  http://textualities.net/margaret-macaulay/mistresse-of-the-golden-pen

Supporting Player.....

Can you imagine being incredibly talented, but almost all of your work being 'lost' because you are so good at what you do? It appears that is exactly what happened to Marietta Robusti, a Venetian painter of the late 16th Century.

Self-Portrait, Marietta Robusti

Marietta Robusit (1554-1590) was the eldest child of the gifted Venetian painter Jacopo Robusti better known as ‘Tintoretto'. She is said to have been a child prodigy, learning how to paint from a very young age and to have worn boys clothes until she was 15 so that she could more easily accompany her father. She and two of her siblings apprenticed in her fathers workshop and Marietta was especially adept at creating the same flamboyant images that her father was so well known for.

By the time she was 14 Marietta had captured the attention of Holy Roman Emperor Maximillian II and King Philip II of Spain. Both rulers tried to entice Marietta to come to their courts. Her father talked her out of these offers, some say because he was so fond of her, others because he relied heavily on her help in the workshop. Either way, Marietta stayed in Venice and Tintoretto arranged for her to marry a jeweler, Mario Augusti. In the marriage contract Augusti agreed that after the wedding he and Marietta would live in the house with Tintoretto until the day Tintoretto died. Smooth dad...real smooth.

Allegory of Wisdom, Marietta Robusti

The bread and butter work for painters were commissioned portraits, and Marietta was very good at portraits. It was en vogue to have one’s portrait painted by her. Tintoretto biographer Carlo Ridolfi-Filippi wrote that Marietta had painted the portrait of all of the members of her husband's guild. While portrait work paid the bills, Marietta was also able to participated in larger commissions, such as an altarpieces.

Marietta worked alongside her father all her life. And, that is a problem for this artist. She learned  her fathers style so well that she never developed a distinct style of her own. Her career lasted 15 years or so, but very few works survive that can be directly attributed to Marietta. In a time when artists didn't consistently sign their works it is easy to understand why most of her works were attributed to her father. Some have gone so far as to suggest that, upon Tintoretto's death, his agents assigned everything in the workshop to him in order to drive the value of the works higher.

Marietta's story is illustrative of the struggles of women during this period. Women were often expected to be supporting players, sustaining the work of the father, or husband, rather than establishing their own separate career. Fortunately for us, enough of Marietta's talent shown through that now, nearly 500 years later, we can enjoy her talent and celebrate her excellent work.

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Selected Sources

Deye, Carola. The History of Painting Revisited - Marietta Robusti. https://thehistoryofpaintingrevisited.weebly.com/marietta-robusti.html

Fortune, Jane. The Florentine - Marietta Robusti. https://www.theflorentine.net/art-culture/2009/09/marietta-robusti/

That's Doctor Bad-Ass to You

We are aware of countless stories about women who take care of the home and family while their husbands pursue successful careers. Sometimes these women even manage a portion or all of the 'back office' activities so that the husband can concentrate on the product or growing the business. It's been interesting to learn that in the 16th century we have several examples of men that helped run the household and manage the business side of the studio so that their talented wives could be free to paint. A recent post discussed Diana Scultori and how she and her husband worked together and ran a successful business. We also have learned that Sofonisba Angussola's husband supported her career for many years.

This trend continues with our next artist - Renaissance painter Lavinia Fontana. Lavinia was a portrait artist. Not unusual, because by this time portraits were typical for women painters.  However, Lavinia also received commissions for religious and mythological works, which sometimes included female nudes. 

Self Portrait, Lavinia Fontana

Lavinia was born in 1552 in Bologna. She was trained by her father Prospero Fontana and was active in Bologna and Rome. She is regarded one of the few, and maybe the first female career artist in Western Europe.  She relied on commissions for her income; an income which was used to support her family. Her husband -  Gian Paolo Zappi - was a fellow artist and student of her father. As Lavinia's success grew Gian assisted with her work,  served as her agent and raised their eleven children.  

Yes, eleven children. That didn't slow Lavinia down a bit. In addition to everything else, she got her doctorate from the University of Bologna, and she also became a member of the Academy of Rome. 

Both financially and critically successful, Lavinia's paintings were characterized by their poised compositions, attention to detail and the use of a delicate palette.  In her self portrait (above) you can see the careful attention the the placement of the figure, the detail of the clothing and the choice of color. Here she is impeccably dressed in lace and jewels. She paints herself as a scholar, studying items from an archaeological find. 

Portrait of the Gozzadini Family,
 Lavinia Fontana

Lavinia was skilled not only at painting realistic images but also capturing the subject(s) mood. Her "Portrait of the Gozzadini Family" (left), is a psychologically complex image. it is said that this painting was commissioned by the father of the two women in the painting as a reminder that that the money they brought with them into their marriages is ultimately of their own inheritance, and not to be withheld from them by their husbands. 

Antonietta Gonzalez, Lavinia Fontana

Another unusual work is the somewhat unsettling painting of Antonietta Gonzalez. Little Antonietta  (as well as her father, two sisters and other family members) had hypertrichosis (also commonly called "werewolf syndrome"). This is a rare genetic disorder which causes an abnormal amount of hair on the body. While this could have resulted in the family being outcast, in fact they were welcomed in to the courts of Europe. Lavinia painted Antonietta in 1595 and you can almost feel the compassion for the child flowing from the paint brush. Her eyes are inquisitive and her faint smile sweet and trusting.

Lavinia had the largest body of work for a female artist up to this time - 135 paintings have been attributed to her. Her Patrons were Pope Gregory XIII, Pope Clement VII, Pope Paul V. She was the recipient of a rare honor in 1603 when Pope Clement IX summoned her to an audience in the papal palace. Clement commissioned an altarpiece for the church of San Paolo Fuori le Mura. The resulting was a 20 - foot altarpiece titled "The Stoning of St. Stephen Martyr"  and became the best known of her work. Unfortunately, the church burned in 1823 and the painting was lost.

Lavinia Fontana was a wildly talented artist. She was a creative, intellectual woman who was an inspiration for artists such as Artemisia Gentileschi and Elisabetta Sirani (who we will learn more about in the upcoming weeks). But most importantly, she was a bad-ass that portrayed herself as a painter, a musician and a scholar.

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Selected Sources

Great Women Artists. Phaidon Editors

Lavinia Fontana Facts. https://biography.yourdictionary.com/lavinia-fontana

McIver, Katherine A. “Lavinia Fontana's ‘Self-Portrait Making Music.’” Woman's Art Journal, vol. 19, no. 1, 1998, pp. 3–8. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1358647.

Musical Expressions of Intellect and artistry

I'm taking a bit of a detour with today's post. As you know, dear reader, the past few months have been focused on visual artists. During that research I've come across some interesting Bad-Ass women who express themselves with music. I thought I'd share their stories.

Clara Tott (1440 - 1520) worked at the Court in Munich as a singer. Her father was Gerhard Tott, a city Councilman. Much of Clara's story seems to center around her love affair and eventual marriage to Frederick I, Elector Palatine. The pair tried to keep their relationship secret, but in 1472, when their eldest son wanted a position in the cathedral chapters of Speyer and Worms, they came clean about their marriage.

Secret marriages aside, Clara was apparently influential in musical circles. Scholars say that she was musically talented and had a lasting effect on the musical life at court in Heidelberg. When Fredrick wanted to organize a local choir, Clara convinced him to appoint the famous singer Johann Steinwert von Soest as its leader.

Maddalena Casulana (c. 1544 – c. 1590) was likely born at Casole d'Elsa (based on her name). Little is known about her early life, but it is believed that she received her musical education in Florence. She was a composer, and lutenist and is the first female composer to have her music printed and published in the history of western music.

It appears that Maddalena was close to the de' Medici family. Her first book of madrigals included the following dedication to Isabella de' Medici: "[I] want to show the world, as much as I can in this profession of music, the vain error of men that they alone possess the gifts of intellect and artistry, and that such gifts are never given to women." This is a telling statement coming from Maddalena - it demonstrates how she viewed being a female composer at a time when the field was dominated by men.

Caterina Assandra, Unknown

Caterina Assandra (1590 – 1618) was an Italian nun and composer of composer of a number of motets and organ pieces. I had to learn a bit about motets and quickly found that I am no musical scholar! During the Renaissance a motet could be secular or religious. In general this is a type of music is performed by several voices. Motets are "polyphonic", they consist of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody. If you are musically astute, you might be thinking "what's the big deal, that's how choral music is written!". Correct, in the 21st century. In the 16th century, that style was evolving and Caterina was right there in the middle of changing musical styles.

There are approximately 14 known compositions attributed to Caterina. She was the first Italian nun to have an entire collection of musical works published.

Want to hear some of the work of Maddalena and Caterina? Hop over to YouTube and check out Caterina's Duo Seraphim and Maddalena's  Vagh' amorosi augelli.

Let me know below if you enjoyed hearing about these musical women!

Badass Artist....and Business Woman

Diana Mantuana, better known as Diana Scultori, was an engraver and print maker from Mantua, Italy. In fact, Diana is one of the earliest known female engravers. She came from a family of engravers. Her father, Giovanni Battista Ghisi, was a painter, sculptor and engraver. Her brother Adamo Scultori was also an engraver and painter.

With so many of these artists I find my self needing to be educated on the medium in which they practiced. I learned about enameling when I was studying Suzanne de Court. Now, I've found that I need an education on engraving. In the 16th century engraving was done by first etching the design onto copper plates. Then the artist used a burin, or graver, to cut thin furrows in the plates surface. The burin was a prism shaped bar of hardened steel with a sharp point and wooden handle. This was pushed across the surface of the plate away from the artist, the palm was used to push the burin and it was guided by the thumb and forefinger. When the image was complete ink would be applied to the surface of the plate, and the excess wiped away, leaving ink in the furrows. The plate was then pressed onto paper.

Historians can't quite agree on when Diana was born; some say as early as 1532 and as late as 1547. What is known is that she met the architect, Francesco da Volterra (also known as Francesco Capriani) in 1565 when he moved to Mantua. The pair married soon thereafter and traveled to Rome by 1575.

In that same year Diana applied for and received the Papal Privilege to make and market her own work. It was rare for a woman to receive a Papal Privilege; it meant that Diana could establish a name for her household, and to sign her work. The privilege gave Diana a way to protect her engravings from being copied and then sold “by others of either sex, but most especially book dealers, sculptors, engravers and printers”. If her work was published without her consent a heavy fine was levied against the offender. One third of the fine would go to the Pope, one third to Diana, and the final third to the judge who issued the decision. This would naturally encourage a judgment in favor of the artist. In addition to such a fine, the punishment also included immediate excommunication from the Catholic Church.

Having the Papal Privilege was a good indication of Diana's business acumen. It's clear to me that Diana learned not just her craft from her father, but also how to run a business. She learned from Giovanni that courting patrons was critical to the success of the family business. She used that knowledge when she and Francesco moved to Rome. Diana's artwork promoted her husband as an architect. Diana also retained ownership of her plates which allow her to reprint and have an ongoing source for income. As the years passed the couple became successful. The husband-and-wife artists were admitted to the Congregazione dei Virtuosi del Pantheon - the Pontifical Academy of Fine Arts and Letters. To mark the occasion a pair of medallions were created bearing the likenesses of Diana and Francesco.


Diana made the acquaintance of Giorgio Vasari when she was about 19 years old and he recorded the following in his journal:

"All in all, from what I saw last time I was in Mantua to this year, 1566, when I returned, the city is so much more ornamented and more beautiful that, if I had not seen it, I would not have believed it. What is more, the number of artisans has multiplied and keeps on multiplying. Inasmuch as this, to Giovanni Battista Mantovano (engraver of prints and excellent sculptor, whose story I related in the Lives of Giulio Romano and Marcantonio Bolognese) there were born two sons who engrave copper plates divinely, and what is more marvelous, a daughter named Diana also engraves so well that it is a wonderful thing: and when I saw her, a very well-bred and charming young lady, and her works, which are most beautiful, I was stunned."

One of the most striking characteristics in Diana's work is the attention to fine detail. Unlike oil painting, or even drawing, the engraver has to rely on a series of fine lines to create features and shadows. There would be no relying on different tones and values to create the work, only fine lines. Another interesting aspect to her work is the use of nudes or partially draped figures. At a time when women were generally not allowed to work with male models, seeing these figures in Diana's engravings is quite intriguing. On further study it is reveled that Diana would base her work on that of other artists.

Diana's contributions to the art showed what printmaking could become. She used her skill to make headway into the world of book publishing and thus established herself a a woman of letters. In a time when some considered engraving simply copy work, Diana was able to help elevate engraving to an art form.



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Selected Sources

Lincoln, Evelyn (1 January 1997). "Making a Good Impression: Diana Mantuana's Printmaking Career". Renaissance Quarterly.
Letwin, Hilary "Old in Substance and New in Manner": The Scultori and Ghisi Engraving Enterprise in Sixteenth-Century Mantua and Beyond.
History of Science: Engraving. (October 2019) https://www.hsm.ox.ac.uk/engraving
Steve Bartrick Antique Prints and Maps.(October 2019) https://www.antiqueprints.com/Info/engraving.php
RISD Museum. Diana Mantuana, Renaissance engraver. (October 2019) https://risdmuseum.org/manual/292_diana_mantuana_renaissance_engraver

Museum:Remix. Diana Scultori. https://museumremix.wordpress.com/2015/07/22/diana-scultori-gallery-2-rome-and-the-papal-privilege/ (October 2019) 

But Wait...There's More!!

Seems that I have more to say about Sofonisba Angussiola. I mean, she lived to the ripe old age of 92...girl did a lot of living!

Self Portrait, Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba fun fact #1: She painted at least 12 self portraits. She was among the first artists to paint themselves as an artist. Her first self portrait was painted when she was about 18 years old, the last at around age 75.

Sofonisba fun fact #2:  Fabrizio de Moncada was Sofonisba's first husband who she married at the age of 39 in 1571. A short 8 years later Fabrizio died. She left Spain and set sail for Italy. It was on that ship that she met and fell in love with the ship's captain, Orazio Lomellino. She and Orazio were married in 1580, against the wishes of her family.

Bernardino Campi Painting
Sofonisba Anguissola, Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba fun fact # 3: One of her more interesting self portraits was Bernardino Campi Painting Sofonisba Anguissola. In this painting we see Sofonisba's teacher, Campi, painting a portrait of her. Some art historians suggest that Sofonisba painted this to mock her teacher and to prove that she was the better artist. I somehow doubt that since no contemporary evidence exists that supports this view.

Sofonisba Anguissola,
Sir Anthony Van Dyck

Sofonisba fun fact #4: We've already learned that Sofonisba was a mentor to other women artists of the day. But late in life she met a young Flemish painter Sir Anthony Van Dyck. She advised Van Dyck on technique and in return he painted her portrait.

Asdrubale Being Bitten by a Crab,
Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba fun fact #5: It has been said that when Michelangelo saw a sketch by Sofonisba of a smiling girl he challenged her to depict the more difficult subject of a boy crying. Sofonisba was up to the challenge and produced Asdrubale Being Bitten by a Crab. A friend of Michelangelo's later sent the sketch to Cosimo de Medici, duke of Florence, from where it was widely copied and circulated.

An Illustrious Woman

Picking up where we left off last week with the Anguissola sisters we come to the training of the girls. Sofonisba and Elena were sent to learn painting from Bernardino Campi around 1546. Elena was the second daughter and very close in age to Sofonisba. It appears that the two children were sent to live at the Campi residence and were treated like guests. As well born girls, it would have been inappropriate to have them working in the artists workshop along with male apprentices. When Campi moved to another city Sofonisba became a student of Gatti (around 1550). Scholars seem to disagree on Elena's studies at that point, however, most agree that by 1551 Elena had entered convent of San Vincenzo in Mantua as a Dominican nun, taking the name of Sister Minerva (not to be confused with her little sister Minerva).

Sofonisba became teacher to her younger sisters, Lucia, Minerva, Europa, and Anna Maria. Of these Lucia showed the most promise. According to seventeenth-century biographer Filippo Baldinucci, Lucia had the potential to "become a better artist than even Sofonisba" had she not died so young. All of the sisters continued to paint throughout their lives, but Sofonisba was definitely the most successful.

By 1554 Sofonisba traveled to Rome and it is there that she came into her own. She continued to work on her art and by 1556 she had made the acquaintance of Michelangelo (yes, that Michelangelo). The nature of their relationship is not clear; some Some scholars have suggested that she may have studied with Michelangelo for a time. Two surviving letters from Sofonisba's father Amilcare to Michelangelo demonstrate the relationship with the great artist as well as Amilcare's concern for his daughters career. In May of 1557 Amilicare sent the following message to Michelangelo,

“honourable and thoughtful affection that you have shown to Sofonisba, my daughter, to whom you introduced to practice the most honourable art of painting.”

Elisabeth of Valois, Sofonisba Anguissola

Amilcare wrote again in 1558 thanking Michelangelo again for his praise of Sofonisba's paintings. This letter also underscores the friendship between Michelangelo and Amilcare.
Michelangelo's apparent fondness for the family seems to have helped Sofonisba's career.  Contemporary accounts show that Sofonisba's drawings were circulated among the artistic community and at least one drawing was sent to Duke Cosimo I.

Certainly the renown that Sofonisba gained in Italy helped to secure her position as lady-in-waiting at the Spanish court. In 1559 Sofonisba traveled to Madrid where she took up residency as court painter and painting tutor to Elisabeth of Valois, Phillip II's queen. Sofonisba spent several years at the Spanish court and was held in high regard. There she produced several official portraits of the members of the Royal Family and other members of the court.

These portraits were more difficult than her earlier somewhat playful paintings of her family members. An official portrait had to be precise and detailed. Sofonisba would have had to spend hours painting the fine lace collars, and intricate fabrics all while perfecting the face of the sitter.

 Don Carlos, son of Philip II of Spain, Sofonisba Anguissola

Sofonisba spent about 10 years at the Spanish court. Elisabeth of Valois died in 1568. Some scholars say that Sofonisba was very sad at her passing and asked King Phillip if she could be released from service. Phillp was apparently fond of Sofonisba and wanted to make sure her future was secure so he arranged a marriage (and paid her dowry) with Sicilian, Fabrizio de Moncada. Along with the dowry a royal pension was settled on Sofonisba.

Sofonisba continued to paint and teach the rest of her life. She acted as patroness to several female artists of the day that we will learn more about in the coming weeks:  Lavinia Fontana, Barbara Longhi, Fede Galizia and Artemisia Gentileschi.

After Fabrizio's death, Sofonisba fell in love with a sea captain and merchant, Orazio Lomellino. Orazio was fairly wealthy by all accounts. Along with Sofonisba's income from painting and teaching, her royal pension, and Orazio's business interests they were able to live quite comfortably. The two were married until Sofonisba passed from this world at the age of about 92. Their love is memorialized by Orazio in the following....

To Sofonisba, my wife, who is recorded among the illustrious women of the world, outstanding in portraying the images of man. Orazio Lomellino, in sorrow for the loss of his great love, in 1632, dedicated this little tribute to such a great woman.

— Orazio Lomellino, Inscription on Sofonisba's tomb

Sofonisba lived life on her terms. Certainly she was a trailblazer for women artists. She is the first woman to make a life long career as a financially successful working artist, teacher, and inspiration to other artists.

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Chin, Lily, "SOFONISBA ANGUISSOLA AND HER EARLY TEACHERS" (2018). CUNY Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/hc_sas_etds/276

Kilroy-Ewbank, Dr. Lauren. Smart History: Sofonisba Anguissola. https://smarthistory.org/sofonisba-anguissola/ (Last visited: October 2019)

Perlingieri, I. (1988). Sofonisba Anguissola's Early Sketches. Woman's Art Journal, 9(2), 10-14. doi:10.2307/1358314

A Bad-Ass Dad and His Bad-Ass Daughters

The training of young artists during the middle ages and renaissance intrigues me. The first organized craft guilds came into being in the 12th century in Western Europe and the master/apprentice system shortly followed. An apprentice was a person that was bound by legal agreement to work for a master craftsman for a specific amount of time in return for instruction in a trade, art or business. Apprentices were treated as part of the master's family; masters were obligated to provide room and board for the apprentice.

I've not yet discovered a record of girls being apprenticed to a master painter during this period. Perhaps this is because girls were expected to keep a home, and have children when they reached adult hood. Also, apprentices shared common living quarters, so it would have been considered inappropriate to have boys and girls sharing sleeping arrangements. There is also the consideration of having a male master overseeing a young girl and the potential for unsuitable behavior.

In the last half of the 16th century things begin to change. Apprenticeships were codified and placed into statue in England in 1563. The Statute of Artificers defined how many apprentices a master could have, how long the apprenticeship would last and how disputes between master and apprentice would be settled. Records of the time suggest that girls might be eligible for apprenticeships in some trades such as buttonmakers, lacemakers, and tailors.

Sofonisba Anguissola, The Chess Game

Sixteenth century accounts reveal that  young girls pursuing painting would sometimes have teachers outside the convent or home. Often the teacher would come to the girls home to train her; occasionally the girl might visit the artists workshop.

Fortunately for  the Anguissola girls, their dad saw the value in providing a well rounded education that included training in fine art. Legend has it that Amilcare Anguissola, a nobleman from Cremona,  asked each of his six daughters what they wanted to study. Five of the six said painting and one choosing writing. Sofonisba and Lucia were the most well known of the sister artists. There was also one boy, Asdrubale, who's sole claim to fame seems to be that he was Sofinisba's brother.

Self Portrait, Lucia Anguissola

When Sofonisba was about 14 years old Amilcare arranged for her to study with  Bernardino Campi a highly respected portrait painter from Cremona. When Campi moved to another city she studied with Bernardino Gatti. It is important to note that secondary writers refer to Sofonisba as apprenticing to these two artists, but I've not yet discovered any contemporary source material that confirms she was in an apprenticeship relationship with either artist.

There is still so much to tell about this family. In a first time ever event for Bad-Ass Women Artist Blog the story of  the Anguissola girls is...

TO BE CONTINUED!


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Life in Elizabethan England: Apprentices. http://elizabethan.org/compendium/80.html (Last visited: October 2019)
Cartwright, Mark. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Medieval Guilds. https://www.ancient.eu/Medieval_Guilds/ (Last visited: October 2019)
Statute of Artificers, 1563. http://www.ditext.com/morris/1563.html (Last visited: October 2019)

Evans, Richard. Technical Education Matters: Short History of Apprenticeships.  http://technicaleducationmatters.org/2011/01/06/short-history-of-apprenticeships/ (Last visited: October 2019)

The Lux Life

Limoge. That would just oooooooozes luxury. Artisans in the French city of Limoge have been producing enamel pieces for hundreds of years. From the 12th century until the late 14th century the area was particularly know for producing religious items such as reliquaries. The work fell out of popularity for a while but in the late 15th century, with the advent of the French Renaissance, there was a resurgence in the popularity. The types of items being produced had shifted to beautiful plates, plaques and ewers. These pieces would be decorated with narrative scenes and elaborate borders.

Lehman Ewer, Suzanne de Court

Before we go much further it would probably be appropriate to discuss what enameling is. At the most basic, enameling is glass fused to metal at high heat. "Vitreous enamels are finely ground glass, like fine sand (or even more finely pulverized and mixed with an oil or adhesive). They may be opaque or transparent; their colors come from the use of various oxides. Enamels are similar to ceramic glazes, except that, whereas glazes are in a raw state when applied to ceramics and go through chemical changes in the firing process that smelt them into glass, enamels have already been smelted. The firing process simply melts them and fuses them to the metal." Pat Musick, The Enameling Process.

Those responsible for producing enameled items seem to be part artist, part chemist and part engineer. It is important to understand that these artists had to be trained in painting and metalsmithing. The de Court family were masters at the enameling process, and none better than
Suzanne de Court.

Annunciation Plaque, Suzanne de Court

Little is known of the life of the personnel life of Suzanne de Court. Some historians say that she was the daughter of Jean de Court, a well known enameller of Renaissance France. Others say she was Jean's sister. Still others suggest that she actually married into the de Court family. We may never know.

What is known is that Suzanne lived and worked in Limoge, France and it appears that she was the first woman to become known for her enameling ability. In a time when few artists signed their work we know that Suzanne regularly added either her initials, or full name to her finished pieces. Maybe Suzanne wanted to make sure the world knew that she was a woman and that she was the artist. Or, she may have signed them because she was the owner of the workshop that produced the items.

The workshops that produced enamel work were usually family owned. Guilds were also powerful in France during this time so, it stands to reason that Suzanne would have been a guild member, and may have been a master in the guild house.


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Selected Sources
d’Amecourt, Isabelle. What I’ve learned: Isabelle d’Amécourt on European Sculpture and Works of Art. https://www.christies.com/features/What-Ive-learned-Isabelle-dAmecourt-8912-1.aspx

Crichton-Miller, Emma. Collectors remain enamoured with Limoges enamels. https://www.apollo-magazine.com/collectors-remain-enamoured-with-limoges-enamels/

Drayman-Weisser, Terry. The Early Painted Enamels of Limoges in the Walters Art Museum: Historical Context and Observations on Past Treatments https://cool.conservation-us.org/jaic/articles/jaic42-02-007_2.html

Mistress of a Guild - What?!?!?!

In western Europe artists were often part of the guild structure. The Guild of St. Luke was one of the more successful, having guild houses in many western European cities. The Guild of St. Luke was especially strong in the Netherlands. First mentioned in city records in the late 14th century, the guild in Antwerp may have been the guilds founding city. Bruges, Haarlem, and other norther European cites had active Guilds of St Luke as well. It is interesting to note that the guild system was not particularly strong in Italy. The artistic community in Italy seems to have moved from a simple master/apprentice arrangement to an academy system.

Portrait of a Young Lady, oil on panel

The Guild of St. Luke had very strict guidelines for moving through the guild from apprentice to master. An apprentice (and their family) would agree to undergo training that would last from four to six years. During that time the apprentice would learn all the skills necessary to be a successful artist, not just painting. They would study the preparation of pigments, stretching canvas, preparing the canvas for painting, etc. Eventually they would be allowed to work on one of the masters paintings, perhaps filling in a landscape, or working on a supporting character. After a period of time the apprentice would be given the opportunity to create a masterpiece. If successful they would be allowed to become a journeyman in the guild; if not they had to wait 58 weeks before they could try again. Journeymen could work for any master in the guild and this period usually lasted a year or two. During this time they would refine their skill, and might even begin signing some of their work. Finally the journeyman would make some sort of payment to the guild and would be recognized as a free Master, able to sell their own paintings and take on their own students.

In the Netherlands and northern France women experienced a bit more freedom than in other parts of Europe and we find many in an artistic trade. By the late 15th century as many as 25% of the members of the Guild of Saint Luke in Bruges were women. Several successful artists come from this time and area, the first of which was Caterina van Hemessen.

Caterina van Hemessen (1528 - 1567)  was born in Antwerp. She was a daughter of a well-known Mannerist painter, Jan Sanders van Hemessen. She learned to paint from her father and was known to have collaborated with him. Queen Mary of Hungary, Regent of the Low Countries, was her main patron and supporter.

Self Portrait, oil on panel, 12.6 in. x 9.84 in.

Caterina was regarded as a successful painter in her time. She was a portraitist; painting with oil on panel, most of her works were fairly small. Her subjects were wealthy patrons, usually painted against a plain dark background.

It is not clear when Caterina became a Master in the Guild of St. Luke. What is known is that she was the first woman to achieve that status and that she took at least three students.

Another first for Caterina was her most well known painting, Self Portrait. Many scholars believe that this is the first self-portrait of an artist, of either gender, depicted seated at an easel. This painting shows Caterina sitting at an easel, painting. It looks as though the viewer has entered the room just in time to see Caterina make that first stroke. Mahl stick in place, palette and brushes at the ready, we feel as though we've interrupted her. But, she's not upset, just patiently waiting our next question.
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Selected Sources

Bois, Danuta, Distinguished Women of Past and Present; Caterina van Hemessen. http://www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/vanhemessen-c.html

Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective

Scotterjoseph, Irene. The Athenaeum - Caterina Van Hemessen.  https://www.the-athenaeum.org/people/detail.php?ID=6188

Janson, Jonathan. Essential Vermeer 3.0 - The Guild of Saint Luke of Delft  http://www.essentialvermeer.com/saint_luke's_guild_delft.html#.XY4o60ZKiUk

Thinking Big

Plautilla Nelli, Pained Madonna

Florence, early 16th century. This is the center of the art world. While several important renaissance artists were working in Rome, buy the beginning of the 16th century Florence had risen to become the capital of the art world. Artists like Cimabue and Giotto had began to break away from the Byzantine style of art which was somewhat flat and stylized to producing works where the subjects were much more life like. Their work began the transition to what we think of today as Italian Renaissance art. Many artists followed them, creating not just beautiful work, but a wealth of information about portraying the human form, linear perspective, and understanding the play of light across a subject.

This is the world that our subject for today's blog is born into. Plautilla Nelli was born to a wealthy fabric merchant in 1524. Both she and her sister, Costanza, also became a nun. Nelli became a painter and Costanza became a writer.

Nelli is reported to have been self taught. Fortunately her convent of Santa Caterina da Siena was not fully cloistered, so Nelli could have had access to live models. She ran a working studio in the convent that where other artists would regularly visit. She inherited the drawings of Fra Bartolomeo, a prominent painter of the time. Artists such as Perugino, Andrea del Sarto and Giovanni Antonio Sogliano may have influenced Nelli.

Her studio was likely a gathering place for her patrons. She was apparently well known and her paintings were in demand. In his Lives of Artists, Giorgio Vasari wrote that Nelli “had so many works in the houses of gentlemen that it would be tedious to speak of them all.”

In my mind there are three things that elevate Nelli to Bad Ass Status; the courage to show her subjects feelings, the definite feminine point of view, and the size of some of her work.

Plautilla Nelli Last Super

Subjects in Nelli's paintings appear to be very much present in the moment. Look at her Last Supper.  In the center Jesus lovingly comforts an apostle. The third apostle to the right appears concerned, thoughtful. Three apostles on the left are in deep, somewhat agitated conversation. You can almost hear what they are saying.

Plautilla Nelli, Lamentation

In her Lamentation you can almost feel the despair of the mourners. The women's noses are red from weeping; their posture betrays their anguish. These are women who are heart broken. In the background we see three men, one caught up in the sadness of the situation, the other two, more stoic and removed from the scene. In this painting Nelli portrays the pain and suffering of women in a way that it had not been seen before. You can see that suffering in the face of the Pained Madonna (above).

I believe Nelli also used size as a way to convey the messages behind her paintings. The Lamintation is nine and a half feet tall and six feet ten inches wide. During Nellis time it was displayed in the convent in such a way that the viewer would have been on eye level with the weeping mourners. This would have been a powerful way to draw the viewer into the scene.

Nelli's Last Supper is so large that the viewer could feel as though they are sitting at the table. At 23 x 6.5 feet it is the largest painted work by an early female artist. I think about what it would have taken to produce such a work. The largest painting I've ever undertaken was four feet by five feet and it was exhausting!! I can imagine Nelli day after day working on the images; climbing a ladder to add the tiny detail on the serving bowls or sitting on a scaffold to add the decorative trim on Jesus collar.

We may never know Nelli's thought process or why she made the choices she did but, thankfully, we have many of her works to admire and be inspired by.

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Additional Information on the Last Supper. This magnificent painting was rolled up and in storage from 1808 until 1853. During this time it sustained significant damage.  The restoration was developed by The Advancing Women Artists Foundation and The Florence Committee of the National Museum of Women in the Arts and is expected to be completed in October of 2019.

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Selected References

Advancing Women Artists Foundation  http://advancingwomenartists.org/artists/plautilla-nelli

Plautilla Nelli – the Nun who started a Women’s Art Movement in Florence in the 1500’s – now stronger than ever. https://www.beyondtheyalladog.com/2017/03/plautilla-nelli-the-nun-who-started-a-womens-art-movement-in-florence-in-the-1500s-now-stronger-than-ever/

Garrard, Mary D. Repositioning Plautilla Nelli’s Lamentation. Essay. In Conversations: An Online Journal of the Center for the Study of Material and Visual Cultures of Religion (2014). doi:10.22332/con.ess.2014.1

Michalska, Magda . Restoration of “Last Supper” You Had No Idea Existed. https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/restoration-of-last-supper-by-plautilla-nelli/

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On a side note - if you aren't familiar with the Web Gallery of Art I'd encourage you to visit. It's a great resource that allows you to enlarge the paintings so that you can view detail.